《土爾沙種族屠殺》报道:
这是1921年5月至6月在美國俄克拉荷馬州塔爾薩發生的種族歧視大規模襲擊——
土爾沙種族屠殺(英語:Tulsa race massacre)又被稱作土爾沙屠殺、土爾沙種族騷動、格林伍德屠殺或黑色華爾街屠殺[2][3],是指1921年5月31日至6月1日,美國白人攻擊奧克拉荷馬州土爾沙格林伍德(英语:Greenwood, Tulsa)的非裔美國人社區的居民和企業並屠殺非裔美國人[1],這被視為美國歷史上最為嚴重的種族暴力事件之一[4]。該地社區原本是美國最富有的非裔美國人社區,然而這次襲擊事件分別以地面和空中攻擊的方式摧毀該地區超過35個街區。最終,有超過800人被送往醫院,並有超過6,000名非裔美國人居民被逮捕和拘留數天。
Tulsa race massacre
1921年土爾沙種族屠殺
TulsaRaceRiot-1921.png
土爾沙種族屠殺期間遭到焚燒的建築物。
位置
美國美國奧克拉荷馬州土爾沙格林伍德(英语:Greenwood, Tulsa)
坐标
36°09′34″N 95°59′11″W
日期
1921年5月31日至6月1日
武器
槍械、爆炸裝置
死亡
39人(根據1921年官方報告)
300人(根據2001年紅十字會和奧克拉荷馬州土爾沙騷動委員會最終報告)[1]
受傷
超過800人
主謀
白人暴民和警察[1]
目录
後續
川普造勢爭議
2020年6月,美國總統唐納·川普宣布6月19日六月節在土爾沙舉辦2019冠狀病毒病美國疫情暫停總統選舉活動後的首場造勢大會,當時喬治·佛洛伊德之死正鬧得沸沸揚揚,遭非裔美國人批評「褻瀆土爾沙人民」、「侮辱自由日象徵」。6月12日,川普宣布,「出於尊重」,將造勢大會日期改為6月20日,把重大假期還給非裔美國人[5]。6月19日,非裔美國人民權運動牧師阿爾·夏普頓抨擊川普的選舉口號「讓美國再次偉大」時說,川普在近期暴露了他自己對黑人歷史的無知,美國在過去大部分時間裡都只為了白人偉大[6]。
纪念日
2021年5月31日,美國總統喬·拜登發表公告,宣布当天为全國反思“1921年塔尔萨种族屠杀一百周年纪念日”,呼吁美国民众“反思我们国家种族恐怖的深刻根源”。拜登在塔尔萨种族屠杀纪念公告中承认,美国联邦政府在这起事件中扮演了不光彩的角色:事件发生后,当地通过法令实施新的建筑标准,建房成本之高令多数黑人家庭无法重建家园;事件发生后,联邦政府把格林伍德社区列为“危险”区域,令黑人房主无法以同等条件获得住房贷款;其后几十年,联邦政府的投资,包括穿过格林伍德的联邦高速公路建设,使格林伍德社区遭到拆除和切断[7]。 2021年6月1日,拜登親赴土爾沙,會見土爾沙種族屠殺倖存者3人,並發表土爾沙種族屠殺一百週年紀念演講。拜登說,土爾沙種族屠殺“不是騷亂,這是大屠殺——我們史上最惡劣的一次,卻不是唯一的一次,且被我們的歷史遺忘了太久”,“事件才發生,就有人明顯想把它從我們的集體記憶中抹去……長久以來,土爾沙的學校沒有教授這段歷史,更不用說其他地區的學校”。拜登是第一位承認土爾沙種族屠殺,並在土爾沙種族屠殺紀念日前往土爾沙悼念的美國總統[8]。拜登说,仇恨一直没有消失,现在美国仍然存在对非裔美国人和亚裔美国人的仇恨与歧视,他的政府将会努力解决这些问题[9]。記者詢問拜登是否要為土爾沙種族屠殺代表國家道歉,拜登並未回應[10]。
蔡娪嫣. 眾怒難犯,罕見退讓!川普「出於尊重」延後造勢大會,把「黑奴自由日」還給美國黑人. 風傳媒. 2020-06-13 [2021-07-13] (中文(臺灣)).
蔡娪嫣. 「六月節」全美慶祝解放黑奴》川普擔憂造勢大會被鬧場,竟放話恐嚇民眾不准抗議. 風傳媒. 2020-06-20 [2021-07-13] (中文(臺灣)).
徐剑梅、邓仙来. 美国这场黑人种族屠杀事件百年惊痛. 新華網. 2021-06-02 [2021-07-03] (中文(中国大陆)).
夏榕. 拜登出席塔爾薩種族屠殺百年紀念活動:“我來這裡是為了打破沉默”. 法国国际广播电台. 2021-06-02 [2021-07-02] (中文(臺灣)).
黄耀毅. 拜登纪念塔尔萨种族屠杀100周年 出台政策降低族裔贫富差距. 美國之音中文網. 2021-06-02 [2021-07-02] (中文(简体)).
張文馨. 黑白種族衝突 拜登承認「大屠殺」. 聯合報. 2021-06-03 [2021-07-03] (中文(臺灣)).
谢选骏指出:拜登为何无法代表国家道歉?因为这会牵扯到一个赔偿问题。尤其考虑到,此例一开,后患无穷,因为屠尔杀直杀了几百个黑人,比起印第安屠杀的死难者成千上万,只是九牛一毛而已。
《美国:应补偿1921年‘塔尔萨种族屠杀’》(2020年05月 29日)报道:
州、市政府应赔偿生还者及遗族;制定广泛方案
(华盛顿特区)——人权观察今天发布报告并指出,俄克拉何马州及塔尔萨(Tulsa)市有关当局应为1921年塔尔萨种族屠杀提供赔偿,该事件中,白人暴民杀害数百名黑人并摧毁整个富裕的黑人社区。相关政府当局应尽速制定并实施全面性的赔偿方案,与当地社区密切磋商,解决屠杀造成的伤害和持续影响。
这份66页的报告,《俄克拉何马州塔尔萨市赔偿问题:一个人权的论点》,详细说明这场发生在时称“黑人华尔街”的塔尔萨市格林伍德(Greenwood)区,造成数百人死亡(大多为黑人)、逾1,200幢黑人拥有民房付之一炬的毁灭性事件。人权观察并说明该事件之后出台的政策及结构性种族主义,如何导致格林伍德和更广泛的北塔尔萨地区无法繁荣发展。基于这一背景,美国国会也应该通过《人权40》(H.R. 40)法案,着手解决奴隶制度造成的长期伤害。
Full Report: The Case for Reparations in Tulsa
“塔尔萨市的格林伍德区早在100年前就遭到摧毁,但这场屠杀的生还者及其后代至今仍身受其害,”人权观察美国专案倡导员及本报告撰写员卓艾森.希斯(Dreisen Heath)说。“黑人累积数十年的繁荣和数百万美元血汗钱在几小时內灰飞烟灭,但从未有任何人被追究责任,也沒有给予任何赔偿。”
屠杀发生在1921年5月31日到6月1日,起因为一名黑人男性被控攻击一名白人女性。一群白人暴民,包括部分市府官员授权办事并予武装的人员,突然冲进格林伍德,恐吓黑人居民,并将他们的社区纵火焚毁。大约35个矩形街区──超过1,200间黑人拥有的民房、众多企业、一间学校、一间医院、一间公共图书馆和12间黑人教会──全部付之一炬,数千人无家可归。美国红十字会估计有300人丧生,但确切死亡人数迄今不明。直到最近,官方才开始对无标记的集葬塜做有限度的发堀。
人权观察、全国非裔美国人赔偿委员会和美国公民自由联盟将加入来自塔尔萨及全美各地的民间领袖,自2020年5月31日起举办一系列线上论坛,探讨前述屠杀事件的持续影响,以及塔尔萨及其他非裔美国人的索赔途径。
屠杀发生后,州政府立刻宣布戒严,并与市府当局共同将塔尔萨黑人居民缴械逮捕,将他们迁移到拘留营,数千名塔尔萨黑人居民失去家园,被迫以帐篷栖身。政府官员没有动用任何公款协助格林伍德重建。反之,官员阻挠重建,甚至拒绝来自塔尔萨和其他地方的医疗和重建援助。
没有一个人为这起暴力事件被追究责任,市府和州政府官员数十年来极力掩盖屠杀事实。今年秋季,俄克拉何马州教育厅将首次在课程大纲中纳入有关这起种族屠杀的内容。
2003年,民权律师控告塔尔萨市、该市警察厅和俄克拉何马州,要求赔偿逾200名生还者及其后代。法院不受理起诉,理由是超过该州法定时效。
持续性的实质种族隔离、歧视政策和结构性的种族主义,造成塔尔萨黑人居民,特别是北塔尔萨居民,必须忍受相对其他塔尔萨居民较低的生活水平和较少的机会。该市种族差距在各种指标上都相当显著,从获得健康与营养的食物到教育都是如此。格林伍德社区成员担心,目前的经济投资方案著眼于将该社区菁英化,不够重视对社区的支持或保存黑人传统。
“塔尔萨因为这场屠杀的蓄意破坏而闻名,但几十年来伤害塔尔萨黑人居民的种族主义体制、政策和措施并非独特现象,”希斯说。“从许多方面来说,塔尔萨都是美国的缩影。”
人权观察指出,这场屠杀发生的背景是系统性的种族主义,根源于美国奴隶制、白人至上主义、种族主义暴力與压迫的历史,至今仍存在全美各地。
根据国际人权法,各国政府有义务为塔尔萨屠杀这样的人权侵害提供有效救济,包括通过各种赔偿机制。
人权观察长期支持制定广泛的赔偿方案,为奴隶制的残酷性及其后续伤害负起责任,同时也支持美国众议院第40号决议,成立一个委员会来审议奴隶买卖的影响并提出解除危害的建议,包括道歉和赔偿。这一法案日益获得关注,新增了将近100名附署人,可见有越来越多人认识到有必要解决奴隶制的影响以及数十年来受到遵循并存续至今的种族主义与歧视性的法律与措施。
塔尔萨市与俄克拉何马州政府应迅速作出赔偿行动,包括直接支付赔偿金给少数仍在世的屠杀幸存者及其后代,以及挖掘指认可能埋在集葬塜的遗体。州市政府应尽速制定全面性的赔偿方案,例如强化现有的奖学金计划、补助纪念馆经费以及针对性地注资于健康、教育与经济机会,并且密切谘询受影响社区的居民意见。联邦、州及地方政府有关当局还应该通过立法,为有关该屠杀的民事法律诉求清除法律障碍。
“塔尔萨市官员未能履行充分赔偿的承诺,对塔尔萨黑人居民从当年屠杀直到今天的生活造成持续损害,”希斯说。“政府当局现在有机会对历史上和当前的错误做出全面性的评估,最终做到他们早该完成的工作──为当年屠杀死难者的后代和目前生活在塔尔萨的黑人居民提供赔偿。”
谢选骏指出:黑人选民很多,而受害者较少,双重因素导致赔偿有望。但是惨遭灭族的印第安人就不同了,选民很少,受害者太多,永远无法伸张正义了——
《印第安大屠杀列表》报道:
印第安大屠杀列表,本表列出美洲殖民期间欧洲人与印第安人之间的屠杀事件。
印第安人大屠杀通常指在欧洲人往美洲殖民时欧洲人屠杀美洲原住民印第安人,和印第安人回击欧洲白种殖民者失败,最后印第安人大量消失,是属于美洲的种族灭绝史。
概观
印第安大屠杀是美洲国家上的欧洲殖民者的黑历史,只知当时欧洲殖民者多主张对美洲印第安人进行种族屠杀[1],但到底多少人死于这场长期的屠杀是难以确定的,美洲原住民的死亡被白人非常消极的纪录或揭露,历史学家William M. Osborn写的《荒野边疆:美国印第安战争中自詹姆斯镇到伤膝河的的暴行》 搜集了从1511年两种族首次接触到1890年西扩终止这段时间内、今日美国本土所有有记录的欧印暴力冲突,并确认了7193人死于白人的暴行,9156人死于印第安人的暴行。Osborn定义的“暴行”限于谋杀,酷刑,残害平民、伤者、俘虏的肢体器官。对“暴行”的定义不同也会导致统计数量的不同。
在《美洲种族灭绝,美国和加拿大的灾难,1846-1873》中,历史学家Benjamin Madley记录了在1846到1873年间对加州土著的屠杀数目。他发现这期间的证据,至少9400到16000加州印第安被 非印第安人 杀死。大多数杀戮发生于他所说的370次大屠杀(定义为有意识杀死5人和以上的无武器战斗者或者平民,包括妇女,儿童或者俘虏等,不一定在战斗时发生)中。[2]
影响
针对印第安人的屠杀,产生了极为深远的历史影响。在之后的数个世纪中,对这一系列历史事件都产生了若干的讨论与争议。例如中国的官方媒体自21世纪以来,曾多次发布宣传文章,指控称“1814年美国詹姆斯·麦迪逊政府颁布法令规定每上缴一个印第安人的头盖皮,美国政府将会发给奖金50-100美元(杀死12岁以下印第安人婴幼儿和杀死女印第安人奖50美元,杀死12岁以上青壮年印第安人男子奖100美元)”和“19世纪20年代到90年代,特别是安德鲁·杰克逊于1830年促使国会通过一项法令《印第安人驱逐法案》。印第安人在迁移的过程中,形成了血泪之路。在当地民兵的配合下,美国联邦正规军采取分进合击等战术,集中发起了1000多次不同规模的军事行动,到1890年代基本上完成了灭绝印第安人的作战任务”等[3][4]。
然而其宣传与现实情况有较大出入。如麦迪逊时期的美国政府同印第安人的关系的确极为紧张,表现为1809年签署的《韦恩堡条约》[5][6]和之后因此爆发的蒂珀卡努战役[7],以及1814年签署的《杰克逊堡条约》[8],从印第安人处获得了大量的土地并将其驱逐。其主要原因在于以麦迪逊总统为首的美国白人殖民者的家长式作风、种族主义思想,以及试图对印第安人进行种族改造[9],然而尽管狩猎印第安人头皮现象确实存在,所谓狩猎印第安人头皮的法令则纯属子虚乌有。有研究认为,中国方面频繁放出此类指控,意在转移国内外对于新疆种族灭绝指控的注意力,并对美方进行回击[10]。
屠杀列表
1500–1830年
仅列出发生在北美洲的
年 日期 名称 描述 来源
1539 Napituca屠杀 和Timucuan族交战之后, 埃尔南多·德·索托(Hernando de Soto)处决200人。这是欧洲人首次大规模在美洲大陆屠杀印第安人。 Duncan, E., Hernando de Soto, pp. 286–291.
1540 10.18 Mabila屠杀 Choctaw族向埃尔南多·德·索托(Hernando de Soto)的探险复仇,杀死200名士兵,还杀了很多他们的马匹和猪。起因是白人之前焚烧了Mabila的建筑物,杀死了2500名躲在伪装村寨的武士[11] Duncan, E., Hernando de Soto, pp. 376–384; Steele, I., Warpaths, p. 15.
1541–42 Tiguex屠杀 先是西班牙人入侵,掠夺Tiguex人的住房、食品、服装的Tiguex,强奸Tiguex女人,Tiguex族随后反抗。西班牙人攻击他们。弗朗西斯科·巴斯克斯·德·科罗纳多(Francisco Vázquez de Coronado)率人围攻Moho Pueblo,经过长达数月的围困,他们杀害了200个试图逃走的原住民战士。 Sauer, C. Sixteenth Century North America, p. 141. Flint, R., No Settlement, No Conquest, pp. 144–153.
1599 1.22–1.24 Acoma屠杀 报复性杀害11名西班牙士兵,。Juan de Oñate惩罚性出征土著,在Acoma Pueblo战斗3天, 杀死约800人。西班牙国王 腓力二世 为此惩罚了Oñate[12] Weber, D., The Spanish Frontier in North America, pp. 85–86.
1601 Sandia Mountains事件 西班牙军队摧毁了新墨西哥州Sandia Mountains的3个印第安村庄。据西班牙的资料记载,有900名Tompiro族原住民被杀害。 [13]
1610 8.9 Paspahegh屠杀 Thomas West, 3rd Baron De La Warr
(特拉华勋爵)派70人袭击Paspahegh原住民。他们毁掉了该族人在詹姆士顿附近的主要村庄,杀了大约16-65人。村长的妻子和子女也被抓住并处决了。
1622 3.22 Indian massacre of 1622
(詹姆士顿屠杀) 在弗吉尼亚,Powhatan (Pamunkey)族杀死347名英国人,约占当地英国移民总数的三分之一。 [14]
1623 5.12 Pamunkey Peace Talks 英国人在“和谈会议”上鸩杀Powhatan族头人,共约200人,用暴力打死50名土著. Steele, I., Warpaths, p. 47.
1637 5.26 Mystic Massacre In the Pequot War, English colonists commanded by John Mason, with Mohegan and Narragansett allies, launched a night attack on a large Pequot village on the Mystic River in present-day Connecticut, where they burned the inhabitants in their homes and killed all survivors, for total fatalities of about 600–700. Cave, A., The Pequot War, pp. 144–154.
1643 February 25 Pavonia Massacre In 1643 the Mohawk attacked a band of Wappinger and Tappan, who fled to New Amsterdam seeking the protection of New Netherland governor, William Kieft. Kieft dispersed them to Pavonia[15] and Corlears Hook. They were later attacked, 129 being killed. This prompted the beginning of Kieft's War, driven by mercenary John Underhill.[16][17] [18]
1643 August Massacre of Anne Hutchinson and her family As part of Kieft's War in New Netherland, near the Split Rock (now northeastern Bronx in New York City), local Lenape (or Siwanoy) killed Anne Hutchinson, six of her children, a son-in-law, and as many as seven others (servants). Susanna, one of Hutchinson's daughters, was taken captive and lived with the natives for several years. LaPlante, E., American Jezebel, p. 231.
1644 March Pound Ridge Massacre As part of Kieft's War in New Netherland, at present day Pound Ridge, New York, John Underhill, hired by the Dutch, attacked and burned a sleeping village of Lenape, killing about 500 Indians. Steele, I., Warpaths, p. 116.
Trelease, A., Indian Affairs in Colonial New York; The Seventeenth Century, pp. 79–80.
1655 September 11–15 Peach Tree War In retaliation for Director-General of New Netherland Peter Stuyvesant's attacks to their trading partners and allies at New Sweden, united bands of natives attacked Pavonia, Staten Island, Colen Donck and other areas of New Netherland.
1675 September 18 Bloody Brook Massacre During King Philip's War, Indian warriors killed 60 soldiers of Deerfield, Massachusetts. [19]
1675 December 19 Great Swamp Massacre
(Great Swamp Fight) Colonial militia attacked a Narragansett fort near South Kingston, Rhode Island. At least 40 warriors were killed and 300 women, children and elder men burnt in the village. [20]
1676 March 26 Nine Men's Misery During King Philip's War, warriors subjected nine captive soldiers to ritual torture and death. [21]
1676 May 10 Turner Falls Massacre
(Battle of Turner's Falls) Captain William Turner and 150 militia volunteers attacked a fishing Indian camp at present-day Turner Falls, Massachusetts. At least 100 women and children were killed in the attack. [22]
1676 July 2 Rhode Island Militia volunteers under Major Talcott attacked a band of Narragansetts on Rhode Island, killing 34 men and 92 women and children. [23]
1680 August 10 Pueblo Revolt Pueblo warriors killed 380 Spanish settlers, and drove other Spaniards from New Mexico. [24]
1689 August 5 Lachine massacre 1,500 Mohawk warriors attacked the small settlement of Lachine, New France and killed more than 90 of the village's 375 French residents, following widespread French attacks on Mohawk villages in present-day New York. [25]
1689 Zia Pueblo Governor Jironza de Cruzate destroyed the pueblo of Zia, New Mexico. 600 Indians were killed and 70 survivors enslaved. [26]
1690 February 8 Schenectady Massacre As part of the Beaver Wars, French and Algonquins destroyed Schenectady, New York, killing 60 Dutch and English settlers, including ten women and at least twelve children. [27]
1704 Apalachee Massacre Former Carolinia Governor James Moore launched a series of brutal attacks on the Apalachee villages of Northern Florida. They killed 1000 Apalachees and enslaved at least 2000 survivors. [28]
1704 February 29 Deerfield Massacre During Queen Anne's War, a force composed of Abenaki, Kanienkehaka, Wyandot and Pocumtuck, led by a small contingent of French-Canadian militia, sacked the town of Deerfield, Massachusetts, killing 56 civilians and taking more than 100 as captives. [29]
1713 March 20–23 Fort Neoheroka Militia volunteers and Indian allies under Colonel James Moore attacked Ft. Neoheroka, the main stronghold of the Tuscarora Indians. 200 Tuscaroras were burned to death in the village and 900–1000 others were subsequently killed or captured. [30][31]
1729 November 28 Natchez Massacre Natchez Indians attacked French settlements near present-day Natchez, Mississippi, killing more than 200 French colonists. [32]
1757 August 9 Battle of Fort William Henry Following the fall of Fort William Henry during the Seven Years' War, Indians allied with the French killed between 70 and 180 British and colonial prisoners. [33]
1759 October 4 St. Francis Raid During the Seven Years' War, in retaliation for the rumored murder of a captured Stockbridge man and detention of Captain Quinten Kennedy of the Rogers' Rangers, Major Robert Rogers led a party of approximately 150 English regulars, volunteers and Mahican into the village of Odanak, Quebec. They killed up to 30 Abenaki people, among them women and children, as confirmed via conflicting reports. [34]
1763 September 14 Devil's Hole Massacre During the Seven Years' War, Seneca allied with the French attacked a British supply train and soldiers just south of Fort Niagara. They killed 21 teamsters from the supply train and 81 soldiers who attempted to rescue the train. [35]
1763 December Killings by the Paxton Boys In response to Pontiac's Rebellion, frontier Pennsylvania settlers killed 20 peaceful Susquehannock. [36][37][38]
1764 July 26 Enoch Brown School Massacre Four Delaware killed a schoolmaster, 10 pupils and a pregnant woman. Two pupils were scalped but survived. [38]
1774 April 30 Yellow Creek Massacre Daniel Greathouse killed members of Chief Logan's family. [39]
1777 September 26 The Grave Creek Massacre A milita company under Captain William Foreman is ambushed and killed by Indians south of Wheeling, West Virginia.
1778 July 3 Battle of Wyoming During the American Revolutionary War, following a battle with rebel defenders of Forty Fort, Iroquois allies of Loyalist forces hunted and killed those who fled; they were later accused of using ritual torture to kill those soldiers who surrendered. These claims were denied by Iroquois and British leaders at the time. [40][41][42]
August 31 Stockbridge Massacre A battle of the American Revolutionary War that rebel propaganda portrayed as a massacre. [43]
November 11 Cherry Valley Massacre British and Seneca forces attacked the fort and village at Cherry Valley, New York, killing 16 rebel troops and more than 30 settlers. [44]
1781 September 1 Dietz Massacre During the Revolution, Iroquois allied with the British attacked the home of Johannes Dietz, Berne, New York, killing and scalping Dietz, his wife, their daughter-in-law, four children of their son's family, and a servant girl. [45][46]
1782 March 8 Gnadenhütten massacre During the Revolution, Pennsylvania militiamen massacred nearly 100 non-combatant Christian Lenape, mostly women and children; they killed and scalped all but two young boys. [47][48]
1782 May 10 Corbly Family Massacre During the Revolution, Indians allied with the British attacked the family of John Corbly, a Christian minister in Greene County, Pennsylvania. His wife and three of their children were killed; and two daughters were scalped, but survived. The Reverend Corbly escaped. Daughters of the American Revolution Magazine, R.R. Bowker Co., 1925, Item notes: v. 59 1925 January–June p. 234
1812 August 15 Fort Dearborn Massacre
(Battle of Fort Dearborn) During the War of 1812, Indians allied with the British killed American soldiers and settlers evacuating Fort Dearborn (site of present-day Chicago, Illinois). In all, 26 soldiers, two officers, two women and 12 children, and 12 trappers and settlers hired as scouts, were killed. [49]
September 10 Zimmer Massacre During the War of 1812, four settlers were killed in an attack believed to be by aggrieved Lenape, in Ashland County, Ohio. Howe, Henry., Howe's Historical Collections of Ohio, Volume 1 .pp. 257–258, 1907
September 15 Copus Massacre During the War of 1812, Northwest Indians attacked the Ashland County, Ohio homestead of Rev. James Copus, killing three militiamen and one settler; and wounding two militiamen and a settler's daughter; settlers killed two Indians. Howe, Henry., Howe's Historical Collections of Ohio, Volume 1 .pp. 258–259, 1907
1813 January 22 River Raisin Massacre During the War of 1812, Indians allied with the British killed between 30 and 60 Kentucky militia after their surrender. [50]
August 18 Dilbone Massacre During the War of 1812, an Indian allegedly killed three settlers (David Garrard and Henry Dilbone and wife) in Miami County, Ohio. Settlers later killed the Indian they suspected of the murders. Sutton, R., The History of Shelby County Ohio, p. 122 published 1883
August 30 Fort Mims Massacre After Creek were attacked by US forces in the Battle of Burnt Corn (which the Creek won), a band of Red Sticks sacked Fort Mims, Alabama, killing 400 civilians and taking 250 scalps. This action brought the US into the internal Creek War, at the same time as the War of 1812. [51]
November 18 Hillabee Massacre Tennessee troops under General White launched a dawn attacked on an unsuspecting Creek town (the village leaders were engaged in peace negotiations with General Andrew Jackson). About 65 Creek Indians were shot or bayoneted. [52]
November 29 Autossee Massacre
(Battle of Autossee) Georgia Militia General Floyd attacked a Creek town on Tallapoosa River, in Macon County, Alabama, killing 200 Indians before setting the village afire. [53]
1818 April 22 Chehaw Affair During the First Seminole War, U.S. troops attacked a non-hostile Muscogee village, killing an estimated 10 to 50 men, women and children. [54]
1824 March 22 Fall Creek Massacre Six settlers in Madison County, Indiana killed and robbed eight Seneca. One suspect escaped trial and another was a witness at subsequent trial. Of those charged with murder, one man was hanged January 12, 1825, and two were hanged June 2, 1825. The last defendant was pardoned at the last minute. Wikipedia Article
1826 Dressing Point Massacre A posse of Anglo-Texan settlers massacred a large community of Karankawa Indians near the mouth of the Colorado River in Matagorda Co., Texas. Between 40 and 50 Karankawas were killed. [55][56]
谢选骏指出:其实,最大的杀戮是无案可查的,早已隐没在历史过程之中。但虽然如此,还是可以从人口统计发现端倪——例如美洲数千万人口的消失和中国数亿人口的减少。